CRITERIA FOR EFFECTIVENESS

There is a relationship among school system effectiveness, the socioeconomic status of the community, and the educational levels of parents. Recent studies have suggested that early childhood experiences affect learning and development, with children from impoverished environments generally achieving at lower levels than those from more enriching situations. An article in the April 21, 1997, issue of US News and World Report, for example, supports the notion that improving social and family conditions, particularly in the early years, can enhance development.

In the late 1970s, neuroscientists discovered that children have a rapid increase in brain connectivity early in development. The research of pediatric neurologists suggests that formation of synaptic contacts in the human cerebral cortex occurs between birth and age ten. In other words, most of the brain gets built after birth. (See Peter R. Huttenlocher and Arun S. Dabholkar, "Regional Differences in Synaptogenesis in Human Cerebral Cortex," The Journal of Comparative Neurology, 387:167-178 [October 20, 1997]). Higher intelligence is witnessed in individuals with more stimulation and protein in the early years of life. More recent documentation indicates that "age three seems more likely to mark only the beginning of a long developmental and maturational period during which environmental stimulation and experience do matter" (See John T. Bruer, "Neural Connections – Some You Use, Some You Lose," Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 81, No. 4, pp. 264-277, [December 1999]).

Achievement has also been associated with child rearing practices, assertive mothers generally rearing children who achieve at higher levels than those reared by less assertive mothers. (See Guy Odom, Mothers, Leadership, and Success, Houston: Polybius Press, 1989.) These concepts open up many opportunities for parents and schools to work together in improving learning potential.

The effective school research has abundantly demonstrated that achievement levels between poor and affluent students can be narrowed considerably while increasing levels of achievement for all students.

Nevertheless, the criteria of effectiveness are generally met at a higher level when student populations contain a small percentage of free and reduced lunch students (an indicator of poverty levels) and the educational level of parents is high school completion or above. We can generally assume that school systems which have better entry level characteristics than the state average will meet the criteria of effectiveness at a higher level than those whose entry level characteristics match or are below the state average.

Entry level characteristics used for predicting student achievement levels are items such as:

• percent of students' mothers who have graduated from high school;
• percent of students with limited English proficiency;
• percent of students living in poverty;
• percent of school system families receiving public aid;
• percent of student population on free and reduced lunch;
• average family income of parents in the community;
• percent of teaching staff having a Master's degree or higher;
• the general fund expenditure per pupil, excluding capital expenditures; and
• percent of teaching staff having temporary certificates or letters of authorization.

In this audit, the items used to predict the levels at which the effectiveness criteria should be met by the Chesterfield County School Division include:

• percent of student population on free and reduced lunch;
• percent of students whose principal language is not English;
• percent of school system residents living in poverty;
• the average family and per capita income in the school system;
• the education level of adult residents in the community (average number of years of schooling);
• the general fund expenditure per pupil, excluding capital funds;
• percent of student population performing on grade level in grades 1-3;
• mean score of student population in grade 2 (OLSAT score);
• percent of teaching staff having a Master's degree or higher;
• percent of teachers having temporary certificates or letters of authorization.

Educational researchers and auditors realize that predictions and judgments cannot be made from a single indicator. Therefore, the audit uses a multiple variable approach to making recommendations and arriving at conclusions. It is the same method used by various state departments of education to establish accountability and validate school effectiveness. It was initially developed by the South Carolina Department of Education (Division of Public Accountability) and has been used in several other states.

If a number of variables indicate some trend, and all the variables are moving in the same direction, then the confidence level of the prediction, or the conclusion, is well established. This is a commonly accepted practice in educational auditing.

To establish effectiveness levels for the Chesterfield County School Division, we used the following conditions, as reported by the School Division for the 1999-00 school year (sources noted if other than the School Division):

• percent of student population on free and reduced lunch is 18.46%:
• percent of students whose principal language is not English is less than 1.00%;
• percent of school system residents living in poverty is 4.00%;
• percent of households receiving public assistance is 3.00%;
• the average per capita income in the community is $16,483;
• the average education level of parents and guardians of Chesterfield students is 14.03 years of schooling;
  (Source: 1996-97 Parent Survey in Chesterfield County Public Schools)
• the general fund expenditure per pupil, excluding capital funds is $3,940;
• percent of student population performing on grade level in grade 4 is 70%;
• mean score of student population on tests of cognitive ability in grade 3 is 105.4;
• percent of teaching staff having a Master's degree or higher is 39.26%;
• percent of teaching staff having temporary certificates or letters of authorization is 8.44%;

With the above socio-demographic profile, and considering the large (and growing) size of the student population, the Chesterfield County School Division should establish the following effectiveness levels in order to place the Division’s student and staff populations among the top 15-20% of performance for similar populations:

• The grade point average of the senior class should be 2.4 (non-weighted).
• The Division attendance rate (ADA/ADM) should be 96%.
• Achievement on norm-referenced tests for Total Reading should be at—or above—the 79th percentile.
• Achievement on norm-referenced tests for Total Mathematics should be at—or above—the 79th percentile.
• On criterion-referenced tests, 96% of the student population should achieve mastery in both Reading and Mathematics.
• 15% of the juniors and seniors should be enrolled in the Advanced Placement program. Of all juniors and seniors, 5.2% should be taking at least one AP examination. Of the students taking AP examinations, 75% should be eligible for college credit.
• The one-year dropout rate should be 1.6% or lower;
• The dropout rate, cumulative grades 9-12, should be 6.4% or lower.
• The Teacher Absence Index (TAI) should be at or below 4.5 days (See Appendix C).
• On the ACT, the School Division composite score should be 23.4 or higher.
• On the SAT, the School Division composite score should be 1036 or higher.
• The average of the responses for each correlate of effectiveness for parents, teachers, administrators and other School Division personnel should be at, or below, 2.00. (See Section IV, Correlates of Effectiveness).

Section VII, Effectiveness Levels, provides three significant categories for the entire School Division and for each school:

1. The Mean (average) performance for the comparison population for each variable;
2. The performance standard when effectiveness is achieved in the School Division at one standard deviation above the mean (the Effectiveness Level);
3. And, the Current Status of variables in Chesterfield County School Division and individual schools within the Division.

Assuming the Division's student population has similar characteristics (e.g., poverty level, parent education level) at all grade levels, students should perform at equivalent or higher levels on the achievement tests given in different grades. This kind of consistent achievement at different grade levels may be thought of as "value added" achievement. When this does not occur, a more rigorous academic program should be provided at upper grade levels.

The most appropriate way to gauge value added achievement in a school system is to follow each group of students as they progress from grade to grade throughout their entire twelve years of schooling. The SchoolMatch team encourages the leadership in the Chesterfield County School Division to establish procedures to collect data and monitor progress in this way. In the absence of twelve years’ worth of data on one academic class, the SchoolMatch Audit team considered achievement data for one year as a kind of "prism view" of performance across the grade levels in the Chesterfield County School Division.

The following discussion focuses on an analysis of student performance in the major subject areas of reading (Language Arts and English) and mathematics.

Cognition is the process by which knowledge is acquired through the use and interpretation of environmental symbols. When groups of students achieve results that indicate aggregate performance at a particular level in one cognitive area, the group should be expected to achieve aggregate performance at that same level in other cognitive areas. In other words, groups of students can do just as well in one cognitive area as in any other cognitive area (e.g., reading and mathematics). Equalization of expectations of cognition among groups should not be applied to individuals within those groups.

The following discussion focuses on the major subject areas of reading and mathematics.

Having an Advanced Placement program in the high school creates a stronger academic press for the students and higher expectations for student achievement. The ability of the Division to be successful in this effort is related to its willingness to train its teaching staff and to establish a more rigorous curriculum.

The means and effectiveness levels for enrollment, percent taking exams, and percent earning eligibility college credit are established for populations of high school juniors and seniors nationwide enrolled in AP classes.

More than 250 high school students were enrolled in one or more of 43 International Baccalaureate courses or one or more of the 25 Pre-International Baccalaureate courses during the 1999-2000 school year. Males represented 38.1% of all enrolled; females, 61.9%. Almost every IB and pre-IB course enrollment had a heavier female enrollment, consistent with the fact that three of every five IB students are female.

In the Math and Science High School In Clover Hill High School, course enrollments for 1999-2000 nearly reached 1400. Males represented 62.2% of the enrollment and took one or more of 23 courses. Females represented 37.8% of the 1999-2000 enrollment and took one or more of 22 courses. There were more males than females enrolled in the following courses:

• Computer Graphics Integrated and Advanced Pre-calculus
• All engineering courses Math Models
• Java Programming Integrated Science
• History History/Geography
• US History Economics

Enrollment during the 1999-2000 school year at the Technical Center reached nearly 850 students. Males represented 71.2% of all enrolled; females, 28.8%. Gender balance was achieved in enrollments in the following computer courses:

• Applications Information Systems
• Computers for Business Introduction to Computers
• Management Information Systems

A significantly larger male enrollment than female enrollment was observed in the following courses:

• Comprehensive Science Skilled Trades
• All drawing and design courses Electronics
• Engineering courses Advanced Computer Languages

An analysis of the kinds and percentages by gender of diplomas offered in Chesterfield County Public Schools for three school years (97-98, 98-99, and 99-00) shows the following:

The span of course work offered by the Chesterfield County Public Schools is commendable (see Commendation #5). When enrollments are considered in all enrichment, vocational, and specialty areas in CCPS, the results show that male students fill five of every eight course enrollments.

Significantly more males than females enroll in the areas of engineering and all related courses, advanced mathematics, the sciences, electronics, and advanced computer course work. Likewise, more females than males enroll in areas of English literature, foreign languages and literature, Social Sciences, Biology and Art.

An analysis of grade point averages indicates that, generally, the highest grade inflation occurs in the lowest achieving schools. This is suggestive of low expectations for those students who most need to have higher expectations. Schools with grade inflation tend to reward low quality work, and grades may not reflect actual learning levels.

The benefits of rewarding high quality work and holding high expectations for all students is generally evidenced in lower overall grade point average, high performance on college entrance examinations, and a capacity to continue to achieve at high levels in Advanced Placement and other rigorous academic programs.

The Chesterfield County School Division grade point average for the 1999-00 senior class was calculated at 2.68. The mean (average) GPA for the cohort of similar student populations is 2.6, and the effectiveness level is 2.4.

An analysis of student performance data indicates that Senior GPA approaches the cohort mean. Because of this, grade inflation does not appear to exist in the Chesterfield County School Division. Data confirming this observation include SAT scores achieving the mean for similar student populations; scores on statewide SOL tests consistently above state averages; and performance on the SAT 9 in mathematics, while not yet at the effectiveness level, above the mean in grade 6 for the 1999-2000 school year.

To maintain effectiveness for overall Grade Point Average, the Division should continue applying current rigorous grading standards, continue regular teacher training in Division-wide standards; and continue to use data collection and analysis to monitor student grades and the performance of groups of students within the Division.

A further review of the data indicate that grade inflation does not occur at Bird, Matoaca, or Thomas Dale High Schools, where senior class Grade Point Average achieves the mean for similar school populations. Likewise, at Manchester and Meadowbrook High Schools, grade inflation does not occur and the senior class GPA achieves effectiveness.

Teacher training in and application of Division grading standards appear to be effective in these high schools. Practices at these high schools resulting in an absence of grade inflation may be transferable to all Chesterfield High Schools.

1. Student Attendance

The average student attendance rate during the 1999-00 school year was 95.7%. The effectiveness level is 96% and the mean is 93%. Division-wide student attendance levels for this school year approach, but do not quite achieve, effectiveness.

2. Teacher Attendance

The average number of days of discretionary teacher absence in the Chesterfield County Schools for the 1999-00 school year was 7.32 days per teacher.*

In comparison school systems, the effectiveness level is 4.5 days per teacher per year, and the mean is 6.5. Generally speaking, the higher the teacher absence rate, the less effective is a school system (e.g., continuity of instruction; monitoring student achievement; positive attendance role modeling for students; cost of substitute teachers depleting funds which could be used for instruction).

Only discretionary absences are included in the calculation of the teacher absence rate (see Appendix C).

Currently, the teacher absence rate in Chesterfield County School Division is greater than the mean and effectiveness level.

Teacher attendance may be improved by publicizing absence rates, designing School Division policy to recognize and reward teacher attendance, and implementing practices across the Division adopted from buildings where teacher attendance is effective.